Bridging the Digital Divide: Enhancing Digital Inclusion of Blind or Partially Sighted and Deaf or Hard of Hearing Individuals in Low- and Middle-Income Countries through Smartphones as Assistive Technology
Maryam Bandukda, Mary Caroline Yuk, Giulia Barbareschi, Laxmi Gunupudi, Vinicius Ramos, Amit Prakash, Satish Mishra, Victoria Austin, Catherine Holloway · 2026 · ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing · doi:10.1145/3783991
Summary
This multi-country study evaluates a two-day scaffolded digital skills training intervention designed to improve smartphone proficiency among blind or partially sighted (BPS) and deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) individuals in Brazil, India, and Kenya. The research recruited 395 participants (208 BPS, 187 DHH) who received training on Android smartphone accessibility features—including TalkBack, Google Assistant, Live Transcribe, Live Captions, and Sound Amplification—followed by six months of smartphone use with ongoing WhatsApp-based peer support. The training curriculum drew on Vygotsky's scaffolding theory and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), adapting content to participants' baseline abilities rather than treating disability as a deficit. BPS participants received primarily voice- and touch-based instruction with hands-on trainer support, while DHH participants had visual guides and sign language interpreter (SLI) assistance. The intervention was co-designed with local organizations of persons with disabilities (OPDs) in each country. Using an adapted Mobile Device Proficiency Questionnaire (MDPQ), researchers measured perceived smartphone proficiency before and after training. Qualitative data from trainer observations and participant interviews explored learning experiences and barriers encountered during training.
Key findings
The intervention produced a statistically significant average improvement of 3.38 points on the MDPQ scale, though effectiveness varied substantially by country. Indian participants showed the largest gains (+6.54 points for BPS), while Brazilian participants showed minimal improvement. DHH participants consistently demonstrated higher baseline proficiency than BPS participants across all countries—approximately half a standard deviation higher on the MDPQ scale. Key barriers differed by disability group. BPS participants struggled with inaccessible smartphone packaging (lacking tactile marking or Braille), memorizing TalkBack gestures, and setting up voice assistants in non-English languages. DHH participants faced challenges with SLIs who lacked familiarity with technical accessibility terminology, and many had limited exposure to written language due to education primarily in regional sign languages. Peer support emerged as crucial for sustained learning—WhatsApp groups created after training allowed participants to share tips, troubleshoot problems, and build digital confidence. Participants reported significant gains in independence, with many describing reduced reliance on sighted or hearing family members for everyday tasks like communication, navigation, and financial transactions.
Relevance
This research provides an evidence-based model for digital skills training that accessibility practitioners and organizations can adapt for LMIC contexts. The finding that device provision alone is insufficient—training must accompany hardware distribution—has direct implications for assistive technology programs and policy. The study's emphasis on ability-based design over deficit-focused approaches offers a practical framework: assess individual baseline skills, provide modular curricula at appropriate difficulty levels, and leverage peer communities for extended support. The significant differences between BPS and DHH participant experiences underscore that "sensory disability" is not monolithic—training programs must be tailored to specific access needs. For organizations working in LMICs, the policy recommendations are actionable: co-design with OPDs, train SLIs on accessibility terminology before deployments, extend training duration for participants with lower baseline skills, and proactively address gender and age disparities in digital access.
Tags: digital inclusion · digital literacy · LMIC · blind and low vision · deaf and hard of hearing · smartphones · assistive technology · scaffolding · ability-based design · digital skills training