Glossary

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Benchmark dataset(also: Evaluation dataset, Test benchmark)

A standardized dataset used to evaluate and compare the performance of AI models, algorithms, or systems against established baselines. In accessibility, the absence of benchmark datasets that include people with disabilities means disparate performance across disability…

Bespoke Accessibility(also: Personalised Accessibility, Individualized Access)

An approach to accessibility that recognises each person's access needs are unique and may conflict with those of others, requiring individually tailored rather than one-size-fits-all solutions. Bespoke accessibility goes beyond standard guidelines by acknowledging that what…

Bespoke Assistive Technology(also: Bespoke AT, Custom Assistive Technology)

Assistive technology that is designed and built from scratch to meet the unique requirements of a specific individual, as opposed to adapting or modifying existing products. Bespoke AT is distinguished from DIY assistive technology by the involvement of professional designers or…

Bespoke Co-Design(also: Personalised Co-Design)

An approach to participatory design in which interventions are co-designed individually with each user rather than in group settings, allowing for highly targeted and personalised solutions. In accessibility contexts, bespoke co-design recognises that people with variable…

Bespoke Design(also: Custom Design, Bespoke Assistive Technology)

The creation of individually tailored products or solutions made to meet the specific needs of a single user, as opposed to mass-produced or universally designed items. In assistive technology, bespoke design addresses the reality that every person's combination of abilities,…

Best-Worst Scaling(also: BWS, Maximum Difference Scaling, MaxDiff)

A survey methodology for efficiently collecting ranking judgments from participants over a large set of items. Instead of asking participants to rank all items at once (which becomes cognitively overwhelming beyond a handful of options), BWS presents small subsets (N-tuples,…

Beta Rhythm(also: Beta Wave, Beta Oscillation)

A pattern of electrical brain activity oscillating at approximately 13-30 Hz, commonly recorded over the sensorimotor cortex. Like mu rhythms, beta rhythms are modulated by movement and motor imagery — they are suppressed during movement and show a characteristic post-movement…

Between-Subjects Design(also: Between-Groups Design, Independent-Groups Design)

A between-subjects design is an experimental research design in which each participant is assigned to only one condition, and the conditions are compared across different groups of people. It contrasts with within-subjects (repeated-measures) designs, in which every participant…

Bharati Braille(also: Indian Braille)

A unified Braille standard for writing text in Indian languages using the six-dot Braille format. Bharati Braille assigns the same Braille cell to phonetically equivalent characters across different Indian languages (Hindi, Bengali, Tamil, etc.), meaning that a reader familiar…

Bi-Directional Alignment(also: Two-Way Alignment, Mutual Alignment)

An approach to human-AI interaction design that addresses alignment from both directions: not only adapting AI systems to match human values and preferences, but also helping humans understand, direct, and correct AI system behaviour. Traditional AI alignment focuses solely on…

Bias Benchmarking Questionnaire(also: BBQ)

A standardized dataset used in AI fairness research to evaluate social biases in language models. The BBQ consists of carefully crafted context-question pairs designed to test whether models exhibit stereotypical associations related to age, gender, race, disability, and other…

Bias Mitigation(also: Algorithmic Fairness, Debiasing)

The process of identifying and reducing systematic errors or prejudices in AI systems, datasets, and algorithms that lead to unfair outcomes for particular groups of people. In accessibility, bias mitigation is critical because AI training datasets often underrepresent people…

Bibliometric analysis(also: Bibliometrics, Scientometrics)

The quantitative study of scientific literature using statistical methods to analyse publication patterns, citation networks, authorship trends, and research impact. In accessibility research, bibliometric analysis has been used to map the evolution of the field, identify key…

Bibliometrics(also: Bibliometric Analysis, Science Mapping)

Bibliometrics is the quantitative analysis of published research literature, including citation patterns, authorship networks, keyword frequencies, and publication trends. In accessibility research, bibliometric methods help identify research gaps, map the evolution of topics…

Bicultural Identity(also: Biculturalism)

An identity characterised by active participation in and identification with two distinct cultural communities — in the Deaf context, navigating both Deaf culture (sign-language based, with its own norms, humour, and social practices) and the surrounding hearing culture.…

Bidirectional Interface(also: BiDi Interface, RTL Interface)

A user interface designed to support both left-to-right (LTR) and right-to-left (RTL) text directions, essential for languages such as Arabic, Hebrew, Farsi, and Urdu. Bidirectional interfaces must handle not only text direction but also the mirroring of layout elements,…

Bidirectional Learning

A principle in community-based and participatory design research in which knowledge flows in both directions between researchers/designers and community members, rather than researchers extracting data from participants. In accessibility contexts, bidirectional learning means…

Big Five Personality Traits(also: Big Five, Five-Factor Model, OCEAN Model)

A widely used psychological model that describes human personality along five trait dimensions: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. Originally developed in personality psychology, it has been adopted in human-robot interaction…

Bilingual Education(also: Bilingual-Bicultural Education, Bi-Bi Education)

Bilingual education in the context of deaf education refers to teaching approaches that use both sign language and the written form of a spoken language as languages of instruction. Often called bilingual-bicultural (Bi-Bi) education, this model recognizes sign language as the…

Bilingual-Bicultural Education(also: Bi-Bi Education, Bilingual Bicultural Education)

Bilingual-bicultural (Bi-Bi) education is an approach to Deaf education in which children learn in both a natural sign language (e.g., ASL, BSL, LSF, LGP) as a first language and the surrounding written/spoken language as a second language, while engaging substantively with both…

Bimanual Exploration(also: Two-handed exploration, Bimanual tactile exploration)

The use of both hands in coordinated roles to perceive an object or space by touch. In blind and low-vision users, bimanual exploration is typically asymmetric: one hand (often the non-dominant) serves as a spatial anchor holding a frame of reference while the other hand (often…

Bimanual Interaction(also: Two-Handed Interaction)

Interaction techniques in computing and VR that require the coordinated use of both hands simultaneously, such as holding two controllers, performing gestures with both hands, or operating dual joysticks. Bimanual interaction presents significant accessibility barriers for users…

Bimodal Bilingualism(also: Bimodal-Bilingual)

The ability to use two languages that exist in different modalities — typically a signed language (visual-gestural modality) and a spoken/written language (auditory-vocal modality). Unlike unimodal bilinguals who use two spoken languages, bimodal bilinguals can potentially…

Bimodal Feedback(also: Dual-Modality Feedback)

A form of interface feedback that communicates information to the user through two simultaneous sensory channels, such as auditory and haptic, visual and haptic, or auditory and visual. Bimodal feedback is significant for accessibility because it provides redundancy — if a user…

Binary Classification(also: Two-Class Classification)

A type of supervised machine learning task where the goal is to categorize items into one of exactly two classes. In accessibility research, binary classification has been applied to automatically determine whether a bug report is accessibility-related or not, whether user…

Binary Search Tree(also: BST)

A node-based binary tree data structure in which each node has at most two children and satisfies the BST property: every value in the left subtree is less than the node's value, and every value in the right subtree is greater. This ordering enables efficient search, insertion,…

Binary Selection(also: Binary Choice, Yes/No Selection)

An interaction method where users make choices between two options at each step, progressively narrowing down to their desired selection through a series of binary decisions. Binary selection is used in some AAC systems, including Look to Speak where users look left or right to…

Binaural Beats

Binaural beats are an auditory phenomenon that occurs when two tones of slightly different frequencies are played simultaneously in separate ears through headphones, creating a perceived third tone whose frequency equals the difference between the two signals. For example, a 400…

Binaural audio(also: Binaural sound, Binaural recording, 3D audio)

An audio reproduction method that uses two channels to create a three-dimensional sound experience when listened to through headphones. Binaural recordings capture or simulate the way human ears naturally perceive sound, using differences in timing, level, and frequency between…

Bio-Electrical Signal(also: Biosignal, Bioelectrical Signal, Physiological Signal)

A bio-electrical signal is an electrical potential generated by biological processes in the human body, including muscle contractions (EMG), brain activity (EEG), eye movements (EOG), heart rhythms (ECG), and skin conductance (GSR). In assistive technology, bio-electrical…

Bio-Signal(also: Biosignal, Biological Signal)

Any measurable electrical, chemical, or mechanical signal produced by the human body that can be detected by sensors and used as input for computer systems. In assistive technology, bio-signals are used to create alternative input methods for people with severe motor impairments…

Biofeedback

A therapeutic technique in which individuals are presented with real-time measurements of their physiological variables — such as heart rate, blood oxygen saturation, muscle tension, or brain waves — to help them learn to regulate these functions. In accessibility contexts,…

Biomechanics(also: Human Biomechanics, Movement Science)

The study of the mechanical principles governing the movement and structure of living organisms, particularly the human body. In accessibility and rehabilitation, biomechanics is applied to understand how disabilities affect movement, design assistive devices like orthoses and…

Biomedicalization of Aging(also: Medicalization of Aging)

The tendency, identified by critical gerontologists, to reduce the complexity of later life to problems of physical and cognitive decline requiring medical or technological intervention. Biomedicalization frames older adults as patients rather than citizens, and positions…

Biometric Authentication(also: Biometrics, Biometric Identification)

A security method that verifies a person's identity using unique biological characteristics such as fingerprints, facial features, iris patterns, or voice. For people with vision impairments, biometric authentication — particularly fingerprint recognition — is widely preferred…

Biometric Authentication(also: Biometrics, Biometric Security, Behavioral Biometrics)

Security technology that uses unique biological or behavioral characteristics to verify identity, including fingerprints, facial recognition, iris scans, voice patterns, and handwritten signatures. Accessibility considerations are critical because many biometric systems assume…

Biometric Control(also: Biometric Input, Physiological Control Interface)

The use of measurable biological signals from the human body — such as brain waves (EEG), skin conductance (galvanic skin response), muscle electrical activity (EMG), heart rate, or eye movements — as input channels for controlling computers and assistive technology devices.…

Biometric System(also: Biometric Technology, Biometric Identification)

A technology system that uses innate human physical or behavioral characteristics — such as facial features, fingerprints, voice patterns, gait, or iris patterns — to identify or verify a person's identity. Biometric systems pose particular risks for people with disabilities…

Bionic Reading(also: Bionic Font, Bold Fixation Points)

A typographic technique that bolds the first few letters of each word to create artificial fixation points, guiding the eye through text more quickly and helping maintain reading focus. The technique leverages the brain ability to complete word recognition from partial visual…

Biophilia(also: Biophilia Hypothesis)

The hypothesis, popularized by biologist E. O. Wilson, that humans have an innate affinity for living things and natural systems, and that contact with nature is therefore a fundamental contributor to physical and psychological wellbeing. Biophilia underpins much research on…

Biopsychosocial Model(also: BPS Model)

The biopsychosocial model is a holistic framework for understanding health and disability that considers the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors in a person's experience. In contrast to the medical model (which focuses on biological deficits) and the…

Biosensor(also: Physiological Sensor, Biometric Sensor)

A device that detects and measures biological or physiological signals from the body, such as heart rate, skin conductance, temperature, or movement. Wearable biosensors are increasingly used in accessibility applications to monitor the physiological states of individuals who…

Biosignal Interface(also: Physiological Interface, Biometric Input)

An input interface that detects and interprets biological signals from the human body — such as muscle contractions (EMG), brain electrical activity (EEG), eye movements (EOG), or galvanic skin response — to generate computer commands. Biosignal interfaces are particularly…

Bipolar Disorder(also: BD, Manic-Depressive Illness)

A group of brain disorders that cause extreme fluctuations in a person's mood, energy, and ability to function. Bipolar disorder involves episodes of mania (elevated mood, increased activity, reduced need for sleep) and depression (persistent sadness, low energy, loss of…

Bite Acquisition

In robot-assisted feeding, the stage in which a robot uses a utensil to pick up a piece of food from a plate or bowl. Bite acquisition is a core technical challenge in assistive feeding robotics because foods vary enormously in compliance, friction, and geometry (e.g., spearing…

Bite Switch(also: Bite Button, Mouth Switch)

An assistive input device consisting of a small button held in the mouth and activated by biting down on it, used by people with severe motor impairments who cannot operate hand-held controllers or switches. Bite switches are commonly used alongside joysticks or sip-and-puff…

Bite Transfer

In robot-assisted feeding, the stage of the feeding cycle in which a robot arm moves food already on a utensil from a pickup location into the user's mouth. Bite transfer is distinct from bite acquisition (picking food up from a plate) and is the most physically intimate and…

Bixby Vision

Bixby Vision is a visual-assistance feature in Samsung's Bixby assistant, built into Samsung Galaxy phones, that uses the device camera and AI to describe scenes, read text, identify objects and currency, translate signs, and answer questions about the live camera view. For…

Black ASL(also: Black American Sign Language, BASL)

A distinct dialect of American Sign Language that developed within the Black Deaf community, shaped by the history of racial segregation in Deaf education in the United States. Black ASL has its own lexical, phonological, and syntactic features that distinguish it from other ASL…

Black Box Model(also: Opaque Model)

A machine-learning model whose internal workings are not directly inspectable or interpretable by a human, either because the model is architecturally complex (deep neural networks, large language models) or because it is proprietary and the developer does not disclose its…