Glossary

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L1 and L2 Language Learners(also: First Language Learner, Second Language Learner, Native Signer)

In language pedagogy, L1 refers to a learner's first or native language and L2 to a language learned after L1 is established. In ASL education, L1 learners are typically Deaf children of Deaf parents who acquire ASL as their first language, while L2 learners are most commonly…

LGBTQIA+(also: LGBTQ+, LGBT, Queer Community)

An acronym representing the diverse community of people who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning, intersex, asexual or agender, and other sexual orientations and gender identities indicated by the plus sign. In accessibility contexts, LGBTQIA+…

LIME(also: Local Interpretable Model-agnostic Explanations)

An explainable AI technique, introduced by Ribeiro et al. in 2016, that approximates any black-box model's behaviour around a single prediction by fitting a simple interpretable model (usually sparse linear regression) to perturbed versions of the input. The resulting feature…

LLM(also: Large Language Model)

A large neural network trained on enormous volumes of text (and often code and images) to predict and generate natural language. Modern LLMs such as GPT-5, Claude, and Gemini can follow instructions, reason step-by-step, use tools, and — in multimodal variants — interpret images…

LLM Accessibility(also: AI-Generated Accessibility, Generative AI Accessibility)

The study and practice of how large language models (LLMs) and generative AI tools handle digital accessibility in their outputs, particularly when generating code, user interfaces, or content. Research in this area examines whether LLM-generated code meets accessibility…

LLM Agent(also: Generative Agent, Task-Executing Agent)

A software system built around a large language model that autonomously perceives state, plans actions, executes them against an environment (a web page, a mobile app, a shell, a UI), and reflects on outcomes to make progress toward a goal. In accessibility work, LLM agents are…

LLM Disability Bias(also: AI Ableism, Language Model Disability Bias)

Systematic prejudice against people with disabilities embedded in large language models due to biased training data and development processes that underrepresent disabled communities. Research has documented multiple forms of this bias: pretrained language models associate…

LLM Hallucination(also: AI Hallucination, Model Hallucination)

The phenomenon where large language models generate content that is factually incorrect, fabricated, or not grounded in the input provided, while presenting it with apparent confidence. In bias research, hallucinations are particularly concerning because models may invent…

LLM Self-Reflection(also: AI Self-Assessment, Model Self-Evaluation)

A technique in which a large language model is prompted to evaluate and critique its own output, identifying errors, gaps, or areas for improvement. In the context of accessibility, LLM self-reflection involves asking the model to assess whether the code or UI it generated meets…

LLM-Based Auto Correction(also: AI-Powered Text Correction, LLM Autocorrect)

The use of large language models to automatically detect and correct common text errors without requiring manual user intervention. In accessibility contexts, LLM-based auto correction can reduce the editing burden for users with disabilities by fixing predictable errors…

LLM-as-Judge(also: LLM as a Judge, Model-as-Judge)

An evaluation methodology in which a large language model is prompted to assess the quality of some artifact — generated text, code, a UI, or a response from another model — according to a structured rubric. LLM-as-judge is attractive because it scales automated evaluation to…

LSTM(also: Long Short-Term Memory, LSTM Network)

A type of recurrent neural network architecture designed to learn long-term dependencies in sequential data by using special gating mechanisms that control the flow of information through the network. LSTMs are particularly effective for processing time-series data such as…

LaTeX(also: TeX)

A document typesetting language widely used in academia and STEM fields for producing scientific documents containing complex mathematical formulae. LaTeX encodes mathematical content as plain text markup commands (e.g., \frac{a}{b} for a fraction), which makes it inherently…

Lab-Based Evaluation(also: Laboratory Study, Controlled Evaluation)

A research evaluation conducted in a controlled laboratory setting rather than in participants' natural environments. Lab-based evaluations are the dominant method in reading support technology research, offering experimental control but potentially limiting ecological validity.…

Labour Force Participation(also: Workforce Participation, Employment Participation Rate)

The proportion of a population that is either employed or actively seeking employment. In accessibility contexts, labour force participation rates reveal significant disparities: in Norway, for example, only 40.6% of people with disabilities were employed in 2020 compared to…

Laddering Method(also: Laddering Technique, Laddering Interview)

A qualitative-quantitative research method used in user experience research to understand why users value certain product features. Rooted in Means-End theory, the technique involves asking participants what they liked or disliked about an experience, then probing with follow-up…

Lambda Notation(also: Lambda Math Code, Lambda Braille)

A mathematical Braille notation system developed as part of the Lambda project, designed specifically for use with computers and digital documents. Lambda is an XML-based code built on a completely new foundation, featuring a Braille character dictionary and pattern-matching…

Landmark(also: Navigation Landmark, Environmental Landmark)

A distinctive environmental feature used as a reference point during navigation and wayfinding. In Orientation and Mobility training for people with visual impairments, landmarks are categorized by the sense used to detect them: structural landmarks (doors, stairs, elevators)…

Landmark Detection(also: Acoustic Landmark Detection, Stevens Landmark Theory)

Landmark detection is a speech analysis method based on Kenneth Stevens' acoustic model of speech production, which identifies perceptually significant points in the acoustic signal where listeners extract information about underlying distinctive features. Three primary landmark…

Landmark Extraction(also: Keypoint Detection, Skeletal Tracking)

A computer vision technique that identifies and tracks specific anatomical points (landmarks or keypoints) on the human body, hands, and face from images or video. In sign language technology, landmark extraction is a critical preprocessing step that converts raw video into…

Landmark Knowledge

A type of spatial knowledge involving the recognition and memory of distinctive features or objects in an environment that serve as reference points for navigation. Landmarks are fixed objects at specific locations—such as a doorway, a change in floor material, or a particular…

Landmark Navigation(also: Navigate by Landmarks, ARIA Landmark Navigation)

A screen reader navigation strategy that allows users to jump between major structural regions of a webpage defined by ARIA landmark roles (banner, navigation, main, complementary, contentinfo, search, form) or their equivalent HTML5 semantic elements. Landmark navigation…

Landmark Object(also: Navigation landmark, Target object)

A specific physical object that serves as the terminal target of a navigation task — for example, an empty chair in a waiting area, a push-button at an elevator, a ticket barrier, a door handle, or a counter at a shop. For blind travellers, landmark objects are the object of…

Landmark Theory(also: Stevens Landmark Theory)

A theoretical framework in speech science developed by Kenneth N. Stevens proposing that listeners extract phonetic information from acoustically abrupt events called landmarks in the speech signal. Landmarks mark points of rapid spectral change — such as the release of a stop…

Landmark-Based Navigation(also: Landmark Navigation, Landmark-Based Wayfinding)

A wayfinding strategy that uses recognisable environmental features such as buildings, signs, or other prominent objects as reference points for giving directions, rather than relying solely on street names or turn-by-turn instructions. Research has shown that landmark-based…

Landmarks(also: ARIA Landmarks, Page Landmarks, Landmark Regions)

Designated regions of a web page that provide structural navigation points for assistive technology users. ARIA landmark roles include banner, navigation, main, complementary, contentinfo, search, form, and region. Screen reader users can jump between landmarks using keyboard…

Language Access(also: Language Services, Linguistic Access)

The provision of services and resources that enable people with limited proficiency in the dominant language to meaningfully access information, programmes, and services. Language access encompasses professional interpretation (spoken), translation (written), bilingual staffing,…

Language Accessibility(also: Linguistic Accessibility)

The practice of ensuring that information, services, and digital content are available and comprehensible in the languages that people actually use and prefer. Language accessibility extends beyond translation between spoken languages to include providing content in signed…

Language Acquisition(also: Language Development, Language Learning)

The process by which humans develop the ability to perceive, produce, and use language to communicate. In deaf children, language acquisition presents unique challenges: 90% of deaf children are born to hearing parents, and without early exposure to an accessible language (such…

Language Deprivation(also: Linguistic Deprivation)

The condition that occurs when children do not receive sufficient accessible language input during critical developmental periods, leading to atypical neural development, cognitive delays, and lifelong mental health challenges. DHH children in hearing families who do not use…

Language Erasure(also: Linguistic Erasure, Language Flattening)

The process by which a language's unique characteristics, variations, dialects, and cultural significance are diminished, homogenized, or eliminated — often through the dominance of a majority language or through technologies that oversimplify linguistic complexity. In the…

Language Immersion

An approach to language learning in which the learner is surrounded by and continuously exposed to the target language in natural, meaningful contexts rather than through isolated instruction. In the context of deaf education and accessibility, language immersion is critical…

Language Impairment(also: Language Disorder, Language Disability)

A reduced ability to understand or produce spoken, written, or signed language that is not due to hearing loss, intellectual disability, or lack of exposure to language. Language impairments can be developmental (present from childhood) or acquired (resulting from brain injury…

Language Justice(also: Linguistic Justice)

A framework that advocates for the equal valuing and inclusion of all languages in social, educational, and technological contexts, challenging the dominance of English and other majority languages. In accessibility research, language justice highlights how reading support…

Language Localization(also: L10N, Localization)

The process of adapting a product, application, or content for a specific language, culture, and region, including translation, cultural adaptation of imagery and symbols, currency and date formats, and text-to-speech voice support. Language localization is a critical barrier…

Language Model(also: Statistical Language Model, LM)

A computational model that assigns probabilities to sequences of words, enabling prediction of likely next words or sentences in text. In assistive technology, language models power word and sentence prediction systems by learning patterns from training corpora. Modern AAC…

Language Remediation(also: Language Therapy, Language Intervention)

Language remediation is the process of treating language disorders through structured intervention designed to improve a person's ability to understand and produce language. In the context of accessibility and assistive technology, language remediation often involves…

Language Understanding Intelligent Service(also: LUIS, Azure LUIS)

A cloud-based Microsoft Azure service that applies machine learning to natural language text to predict meaning and extract relevant information. LUIS identifies user intents (what they want to do) and entities (key information in their utterance). In accessibility applications,…

Language-Based Learning Impairment(also: LLI, Language Learning Impairment, Language Learning Disability)

A developmental condition in which children have difficulty acquiring language and later reading skills while other cognitive abilities appear relatively intact. Language-based learning impairments affect an estimated 20% of preschool and school-aged children, and more than 50%…

Languaging

A sociolinguistic concept that reframes language as an ongoing activity rather than a fixed system. Developed by scholars including Alastair Pennycook and Li Wei, languaging treats communication as the dynamic use of all available linguistic and semiotic resources — words,…

Langue des Signes Québécoise(also: LSQ, Quebec Sign Language)

The sign language used by the Deaf community in francophone Quebec and in francophone Deaf communities elsewhere in Canada. LSQ is a distinct natural language with its own grammar, lexicon, and cultural tradition — not a signed version of French — and developed historically from…

Large Language Model(also: LLM)

A type of artificial intelligence model trained on vast amounts of text data to understand and generate human language. Large language models like GPT-4, Claude, and Gemini power many generative AI applications. In accessibility contexts, LLMs enable natural language interfaces…

Large Language Models(also: LLMs, foundation models)

Large language models are AI systems trained on vast corpora of text data using transformer-based neural network architectures, enabling them to generate, summarize, translate, and reason about natural language. In accessibility contexts, LLMs power conversational assistants…

Large Print(also: Large Type, Enlarged Print, Giant Print)

Text or graphic material produced in a larger-than-standard font size to improve readability for people with low vision. Large print typically uses font sizes of 16 to 18 points or larger, though individual needs vary significantly depending on the type and degree of vision…

Large Print Music(also: Enlarged Music, Large Print Notation)

Music notation that has been enlarged from standard size to improve readability for musicians with low vision. Large print music is typically created by photocopying or printing scores onto A3 or tabloid-sized paper, or by digitally enlarging PDF files. While quicker and cheaper…

Large Vision Model(also: LVM)

A large vision model is a foundation model trained on very large image (and often video) datasets to produce general-purpose visual representations - capable of object detection, segmentation, captioning, or feature extraction without task-specific retraining. Examples include…

Large multimodal model(also: LMM, Multimodal AI, Vision-language model)

An artificial intelligence model capable of processing and generating content across multiple modalities, such as text, images, and audio. Examples include GPT-4V and Gemini. In accessibility applications, large multimodal models enable powerful new capabilities like generating…

Large-Print Notation(also: Large-Print Music, Enlarged Music Notation)

Sheet music that has been enlarged or reformatted with larger symbols and staves to improve readability for people with low vision. Large-print music notation requires a specialized conversion process and is available from only a few sources, such as select libraries. While…

Large-Scale Web Accessibility Evaluation(also: Large-Scale Accessibility Assessment, Web Accessibility Survey)

The systematic automated or semi-automated assessment of web accessibility across hundreds or thousands of websites to understand broad trends, compliance rates, and the overall state of accessibility on the web. These evaluations typically use automated testing tools like…

Laryngectomy(also: Total Laryngectomy)

The surgical removal of the larynx (voice box), typically performed as treatment for advanced laryngeal or throat cancer. A total laryngectomy results in the permanent loss of the natural voice, as the vocal folds that produce speech are removed. The airway is also permanently…