Glossary

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Accessible Routing(also: Accessible Navigation, Barrier-Free Routing, Accessible Wayfinding)

The calculation of travel routes that account for accessibility barriers and the specific mobility needs of disabled pedestrians. Unlike standard navigation that optimises solely for distance or time, accessible routing considers factors such as kerb heights, stairs, surface…

BLE Beacon(also: Bluetooth Low Energy Beacon, iBeacon, Bluetooth Beacon)

A BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy) beacon is a small wireless transmitter that broadcasts a signal at regular intervals, which can be detected by nearby smartphones to determine a user's indoor location. In accessibility contexts, networks of BLE beacons are widely used to enable…

Bluetooth Low Energy Beacon(also: BLE Beacon, iBeacon, Bluetooth Beacon)

A small, low-power wireless transmitter that broadcasts Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) signals at regular intervals. In accessibility contexts, BLE beacons are widely used for indoor navigation systems for people with visual impairments, as GPS does not work reliably indoors. By…

Cognitive mapping(also: Mental mapping, Spatial cognitive map)

Cognitive mapping refers to the mental process by which individuals construct, store, recall, and apply internal representations of their spatial environment to navigate and orient themselves. These mental maps encode relationships between landmarks, routes, and regions, and…

Cyber Crumb(also: Digital Crumb, Electronic Breadcrumb)

A concept in accessible wayfinding where tiny, inexpensive solar-powered digital chips are placed along building walkways like a trail of breadcrumbs, storing location-specific information that can be wirelessly transmitted to assistive devices. Developed by David Ross and…

Dead Reckoning(also: Inertial Navigation, Pedestrian Dead Reckoning, PDR)

Dead reckoning is a navigation technique that estimates a user's current position by tracking their movement from a known starting point, using data from inertial sensors such as accelerometers and gyroscopes. In accessible wayfinding applications for blind and low-vision users,…

Environmental Legibility(also: Legibility of the Environment, Spatial Legibility)

The ease with which people can perceive, understand, and form mental maps of a physical environment in order to orient themselves and navigate through it. Coined by urban planner Kevin Lynch, legibility refers to the visual clarity of a cityscape or built environment — how…

First-mile last-mile(also: First and last mile, FMLM)

The beginning and end segments of a public transit journey — travelling from one's origin to the transit stop (first mile) and from the destination stop to the final destination (last mile). These segments are often the most challenging for people with disabilities because they…

GPS(also: Global Positioning System, GNSS, Satellite Navigation)

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that provides location and time information to receivers on Earth. For accessibility, GPS is foundational to wayfinding apps used by blind and low-vision travelers, enabling turn-by-turn navigation and…

GPS Navigation(also: Satellite Navigation, GNSS Navigation)

GPS (Global Positioning System) navigation uses satellite signals to determine a device's location and provide directions to a destination. For people with disabilities, GPS navigation apps on smartphones have become essential wayfinding tools, offering turn-by-turn directions…

GoodMaps

GoodMaps is an accessible indoor navigation platform that provides detailed indoor maps and turn-by-turn navigation for blind and low-vision users in buildings such as airports, transit stations, hospitals, and government offices. The system uses a combination of smartphone…

Indoor navigation(also: Indoor wayfinding, Indoor positioning)

Technologies and design strategies that help people orient themselves and find their way within buildings and enclosed spaces such as airports, hospitals, and shopping centres. Unlike outdoor navigation which relies on GPS, indoor navigation often uses Bluetooth beacons, Wi-Fi…

Intersection Detection(also: Junction detection, Corridor intersection recognition)

A computer-vision or sensor-fusion technique used in indoor navigation systems for blind travellers to identify where two or more walkable corridors meet, so the navigation software can update the user's position on a map and issue a turn instruction at the right moment.…

Landmark(also: Navigation Landmark, Environmental Landmark)

A distinctive environmental feature used as a reference point during navigation and wayfinding. In Orientation and Mobility training for people with visual impairments, landmarks are categorized by the sense used to detect them: structural landmarks (doors, stairs, elevators)…

Landmark Knowledge

A type of spatial knowledge involving the recognition and memory of distinctive features or objects in an environment that serve as reference points for navigation. Landmarks are fixed objects at specific locations—such as a doorway, a change in floor material, or a particular…

Landmark-Based Navigation(also: Landmark Navigation, Landmark-Based Wayfinding)

A wayfinding strategy that uses recognisable environmental features such as buildings, signs, or other prominent objects as reference points for giving directions, rather than relying solely on street names or turn-by-turn instructions. Research has shown that landmark-based…

Last-Few-Meters Problem(also: Last 10 Meters Problem, Last Mile Problem (Navigation))

The navigation challenge that occurs when GPS or other positioning systems bring a person with a visual impairment to the general vicinity of their destination (typically within 5-10 meters) but cannot guide them to the precise location, such as a specific entrance, storefront,…

Localization(also: Position Estimation, Indoor Localization, User Localization)

Localization is the process of determining a user's position within an environment, typically using a combination of sensors such as GPS, inertial measurement units, BLE beacons, Wi-Fi signals, or computer vision. Accurate localization is the foundational challenge for all…

Location-Based Game(also: LBG, Location-Based Puzzle Game, LBPG)

A location-based game (LBG) is a game whose gameplay depends on the player’s real-world physical location, typically determined via GPS, NFC, Bluetooth beacons, or QR codes. Examples include Geocaching, Ingress, Pokémon GO, and a range of urban puzzle, treasure-hunt, and tourism…

Microsoft Soundscape(also: Soundscape)

Microsoft Soundscape was an accessible navigation app developed by Microsoft Research that used spatialized 3D audio to help blind and low-vision users build awareness of their surroundings. Rather than providing turn-by-turn directions, Soundscape placed virtual audio beacons…

Multimodal Map(also: Audio-Tactile Map, Interactive Tactile Map)

A map that conveys spatial information through multiple sensory channels simultaneously, typically combining tactile elements with audio output and sometimes visual or haptic feedback. Multimodal maps are designed to make geographic and spatial information accessible to people…

Narrative Route Description(also: Verbal Route Guidance, Turn-by-Turn Narrative)

A structured verbal representation of a travel route that guides users through sequential steps using spoken or text-based instructions. Effective narrative descriptions for blind travelers typically follow a consistent format: action to take, distance information, then landmark…

Navilens

A navigation and information system that uses specially designed colorful QR-like codes that can be detected by a smartphone camera from long distances and wide angles, without requiring precise aiming. Originally developed for people with visual impairments, Navilens codes can…

Node Map(also: Topological node map, Graph map)

A graph-based representation of a walkable space in which each node corresponds to a meaningful point — typically an intersection, a destination (room, exit, stairwell), or the user's current position — and each edge corresponds to a traversable corridor or path. Node maps are…

Particle Filtering(also: Sequential Monte Carlo, Particle Filter)

Particle filtering is a probabilistic localization technique that estimates a user's position by maintaining a cloud of weighted "particles," each representing a possible location. As new sensor data arrives—from GPS, inertial sensors, or other sources—particles are updated,…

Pedestrian Navigation(also: Pedestrian Wayfinding, On-Foot Navigation)

Pedestrian navigation refers to wayfinding and route-following on foot in outdoor environments, including sidewalks, crosswalks, public transit access points, and shared streets. For blind and low vision users, people with cognitive disabilities, and wheelchair users, the…

Point of Interest(also: POI)

A point of interest (POI) is a specific location or feature in a physical environment that is relevant to a user's navigation or understanding of their surroundings. In accessible wayfinding systems for blind and low-vision users, POIs include landmarks, obstacles, entrances,…

Points of interest(also: POI, Landmarks)

Specific locations in the environment that are useful or relevant to a user, such as shops, restaurants, transit stops, public buildings, and other named places. In accessible navigation for people with visual impairments, points of interest serve dual roles: they provide…

Pre-journey Learning(also: Pre-visit Spatial Learning, Virtual Pre-exploration)

The practice of learning about an environment's spatial layout before physically visiting it, typically through tactile maps, verbal descriptions, or virtual exploration tools. For people who are blind or have low vision, pre-journey learning supports the development of a…

Route Description(also: Verbal Route Description, Navigation Instructions)

A verbal or written account of how to travel from one location to another, including directions, landmarks, warnings, and environmental features. Research with blind and partially sighted travelers has shown that effective route descriptions include information about turns and…

Route Knowledge(also: Procedural Knowledge, Sequential Knowledge)

Route knowledge is a type of spatial understanding that consists of sequential, turn-by-turn information about how to get from one place to another along a specific path. In navigation for people with disabilities, route knowledge is what most GPS apps provide — step-by-step…

Social Wayfinding(also: Social Navigation Assistance)

Social wayfinding refers to the capacity to perceive and navigate the dynamics of a social scene, not just its physical layout. It covers identifying who is present, where they are oriented, whether they are available for interaction, what they are doing, and how they are…

Spatial Navigation(also: Spatial Orientation, Spatial Wayfinding)

The cognitive process of determining and following a route from one location to another, involving the ability to remain oriented, recall routines, recognize landmarks, and make decisions at choice points such as intersections and turns. Spatial navigation relies on a…

Spatial Orientation(also: Spatial Awareness, Orientation and Mobility)

The ability to understand one's position and the arrangement of objects within a physical or digital environment. For blind and low vision users, spatial orientation relies on non-visual cues including tactile landmarks, audio beacons, verbal descriptions, and mental mapping. In…

Spatial Orientation and Navigation(also: SON, Orientation and Navigation)

The set of skills and strategies used to understand one's position in space, plan routes, and travel from one location to another. For blind and low-vision individuals, spatial orientation and navigation involves using non-visual cues — sound, touch, proprioception,…

Spatial audio beacon(also: Audio beacon, 3D audio waypoint)

A virtual sound source placed at a specific geographic location that a user can hear through headphones, providing directional guidance by leveraging spatial audio to indicate the direction and distance of a destination. As the user turns toward the beacon, the sound appears to…

Spatialized Audio(also: 3D Audio, Spatial Sound, Immersive Audio)

Spatialized audio is a technology that creates the perception of sound coming from specific locations in three-dimensional space around the listener, using techniques such as head-related transfer functions (HRTFs) and binaural rendering. In accessibility, spatialized audio is…

Survey Knowledge(also: Configurational Knowledge, Map-like Knowledge)

Survey knowledge is a type of spatial understanding that provides an overview or mental map of an environment, including the relationships between landmarks, streets, and points of interest. Unlike route knowledge, which gives sequential turn-by-turn directions, survey knowledge…

Tactile Map(also: Raised Map, Touch Map)

A map designed to be read by touch, using raised lines, textures, braille labels, and other tactile elements to represent geographic or spatial information for blind and visually impaired users. Tactile maps can represent indoor spaces (floor plans), outdoor areas (campus maps,…

Tactile Paving(also: Tactile Ground Surface Indicators, TGSI, Detectable Warning Surface)

A system of textured ground surface indicators installed on footpaths, train platforms, and building floors to assist pedestrians who are blind or have low vision with navigation and hazard detection. Tactile paving typically uses two patterns: raised dots (truncated domes) to…

Tactile Signage(also: Tactile Signs, Touch-Readable Signs)

Signs designed to be read by touch, typically featuring raised lettering, Braille text, or tactile symbols. Required in many jurisdictions under accessibility legislation such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), tactile signage is placed at standard locations like room…

Tactile paving(also: Tactile ground surface indicators, TGSI, Detectable warning surface)

A system of textured ground surfaces installed on footpaths, transit platforms, and pedestrian crossings to provide navigational cues to people with visual impairments through the sense of touch underfoot or via a white cane. Standardised patterns include raised dots (warning of…

Talking Signs(also: Talking Sign)

An assistive technology system that uses infrared (IR) frequency modulated voice signals to transmit spoken information about signage to people with vision loss. Developed by the Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute in 1992, Talking Signs broadcast recorded messages that can…

Urban Accessibility(also: City Accessibility, Built Environment Accessibility)

The degree to which urban environments, including streets, buildings, public spaces, and transportation systems, can be navigated and used by people with disabilities. Urban accessibility encompasses physical infrastructure such as curb cuts, tactile paving, and accessible…

Volumetric Symbol(also: 3D Symbol, Volumetric Icon)

A small three-dimensional object used on a tactile or audio-tactile map to represent a category of place or facility — for example, a distinct shape for a restroom, elevator, information desk, or exhibition entrance. Research on tactile cartography has shown that blind map users…

Walkability(also: Walkability Index, Pedestrian Accessibility)

A measure of how conducive an area is to walking, considering factors such as the presence, quality, and connectivity of sidewalks, pedestrian crossings, street lighting, and proximity to destinations. Traditional walkability indices like Walk Score focus on distance to…

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